The is a short take about interesting academic work.

The big idea

All types of mental disorders come with a hidden cost in the form of cognitive dysfunction, including deficits in memory, attention, executive functions and processing speed, according to a that my colleagues and I published in June 2021 in the journal Clinical Psychology Review.

We found that both diagnosable mental disorders, as well as some common symptoms such as anxiety and worry, carry a so-called “cognitive price.” We termed this phenomenon “The C Factor” – short for cognitive dysfunction. This can be defined either as lower performance on cognitive tests or reduction in cognitive abilities such as attention and memory. Our analysis suggests that it can be and that it constitutes an integral part of poorer mental health.

Our team analyzed data from all existing meta-analyses and systematic reviews of cognitive function across all disorders recognized by the . We included 97 meta-analyses covering 29 disorders. Overall, our study incorporated data from more than 200,000 individuals.

Why it matters

In recent decades, mental disorders have become and around the world, particularly in young adults and adolescents. Even before the pandemic, .

In fact, the most comprehensive study to date examining the worldwide prevalence of mental disorders projected that 55% of Americans will over the course of their lifetime. Notably, that study – which was conducted 15 years ago – examined diagnosable disorders. But, in fact, the prevalence of lifetime experience of clinically meaningful symptoms in the general population is much higher. For example, one study found that although only about 20% of Americans will meet formal criteria for major depressive disorder in their lifetime, .

Since our findings demonstrate that poorer mental health is associated with at least some degree of cognitive dysfunction, this type of deficiency may be far more common than previously thought.

These findings are important because some mental disorders may be misdiagnosed based on cognitive dysfunction. For instance, a college student who struggles with should be expected to have some difficulties in areas such as concentration, organization, time management and memory. However, in such a case, these cognitive challenges do not stem from conditions such as dyslexia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, but rather from OCD. This potential confusion may lead to a misdiagnosis.

Indeed, ADHD, a disorder characterized by deficits in executive functions, across all age groups. According to one 2010 study, about 20% of youths diagnosed with ADHD and receiving medications . In addition, there is evidence that doctors all too readily prescribe , even without a complete or formal diagnosis of ADHD.

Therefore, lack of knowledge about cognitive dysfunctions associated with OCD in the example above could lead to inappropriate treatment. Indeed, stimulant medication and exacerbate cognitive dysfunction in such individuals. So it is crucial that mental health professionals gain a better understanding of how mental health and cognitive dysfunction go hand in hand, particularly in the context of misinterpretation of cognitive symptoms.

What still isn’t known

Two major questions arise from the results of our study. First, why does any significant mental health issue come with a cost in the form of cognitive dysfunction? That seems surprising given that various mental health disorders differ significantly in terms of symptoms and type of interventions. Our team is working to unravel the factors that can have a negative impact on cognitive functioning, including reduced motivation, low effort and lower self-efficacy.

Second, what is the actual mechanism underlying this phenomenon? For example, if we find that general suffering is common to all mental disorders, what is the specific mechanism by which suffering hinders performance on cognitive tests? More research is needed to examine these questions.

[You’re smart and curious about the world. So are The Conversation’s authors and editors. .]

This article is republished from , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: ,

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Amitai Abramovitch does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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The U.S. is in the midst of a racial reckoning. The COVID-19 pandemic, which took a particularly , turned a harsh spotlight on long-standing health disparities that the public could no longer overlook.

Although the health disparities for Black communities have been well known to researchers for decades, the pandemic put real names and faces to these numbers. Compared with white people, Black people are at much greater risk for developing a range of health problems, including , and . For example, Black people are twice as likely as white people to .

A vast and growing body of research shows that . Most recently, our team has also learned that racism directly contributes to these inequities on a neurobiological level.

We are who study the multifaceted ways in which racism affects how our brains develop and function. We use brain imaging to study how trauma such as sexual assault or racial discrimination can cause stress that leads to mental health disorders like depression and post-traumatic stress disorder, or PTSD.

We have studied trauma in the context of a study known as the , which has been running for nearly 20 years. This study is largely focused on the trauma and stress of Black people in the metropolitan Atlanta, Georgia, community.

How discrimination alters the brain

Racial discrimination is commonly experienced through subtle indignities: a woman clutching her purse as a Black man walks by on the sidewalk, a shopkeeper keeping close watch on a Black woman shopping in a clothing store, a comment about a Black employee being a “diversity hire.” These slights are often referred to as .

Decades of research has shown that the everyday burden of these race-related threats, slights and exclusions in day-to-day life translates into a . But researchers are only beginning to understand how these forms of discrimination affect a person’s biology and overall health.

Our team’s research shows that the and . In turn, these changes play a major role in risk for health problems.

For instance, our studies show that racial discrimination , , that are involved in regulating emotions.

This increased activity in prefrontal brain regions occurs because responding to these types of affronts requires high-effort coping strategies, such as suppressing emotions. People who have experienced more racial discrimination also show more activation in brain regions that enable them to so that they can curate a socially acceptable response.

A cost for overcompensating

Despite the fact that high-energy coping allows people to manage a constant barrage of threats, this comes at a cost.

The more brain energy you use to suppress, control or manage your feelings, the more energy you take away from the rest of the body. Over time, and without prolonged periods of rest, relief and restoration, this can contribute to other problems, a process that public health researcher .” Having these brain regions in continual overdrive is , which can and early death.

In our research, we have found that this in the , particularly in the heavily myelinated axons of the brain, known as “,” which serve as the brain’s information highways.

is a protective sheath around nerve fibers that allows for improved communication between brain cells. Similar to highways for vehicles, without sufficient maintenance of the myelin, degradation will occur.

Erosion in these brain pathways can affect self-regulation, making a person more vulnerable to developing unhealthy coping strategies for stress, such as . These behaviors, in turn, can increase one’s risk for a wide variety of health problems.

These racism-related changes in the brain, and their direct effects on coping, may help to explain why Black people are twice as likely to develop brain health problems such as compared with white people.

Recognizing racial gaslighting

In our view, what makes racism particularly insidious and pernicious to the health of Black people is the societal invalidation that accompanies it. This makes racial trauma effectively invisible. Racism, whether it or from institutional systems, is often rationalized, .

Such invalidation leads those who experience racism to second-guess themselves: “Am I just being too sensitive?” People who have the temerity to report racist events are often ridiculed or met with skepticism. This .

This continual questioning and doubting of the circumstances around racist experiences, or , may be part of what depletes the brain of its resources, causing the weathering that ultimately increases vulnerability to brain health problems.

Interrupting this cycle requires that people learn to identify their biases toward people of color and people in marginalized groups more generally, and to understand how those biases may lead to discriminatory words and behavior. We believe that by finding their blind spots, people can see ways in which their actions and behaviors could be viewed as hurtful, exclusionary or offensive. Through recognition of these experiences as racist, people can become allies rather than skeptics.

to create a culture of for people of color. A validating, supportive institutional culture may help people of color normalize their reactions to these stressors, in addition to the connection – and restoration – they may find within their communities.

This article is republished from , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: , and ,

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Negar Fani receives funding from the National Institutes of Health and Emory University School of Medicine.

Nathaniel Harnett receives funding from the National Institutes of Health, the Brain and Behavior Research Foundation, and the Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.

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Contributed by

National Alliance on Mental Illness.

More than 50 million adults endure mental illness every year in the United States, that’s according to the  from the National Alliance on Mental Illness. One in six children experience a mental health disorder, with suicide being the second-leading cause of death in children ages 10 to 14. Perhaps surprising statistics to some, but not to Dr. Sheehan David Fisher, a leading expert on mental and behavioral health at Chicago’s prestigious Northwestern University.

“America is in a mental health crisis, one that has only increased since the pandemic. Everyone assumed things would resume per status quo when COVID-19 was controlled: however, that has not been the case. The pandemic tossed us in the fire, and many are still trying to escape,” says Dr. Fisher.

In fact, the JAMA Health Forum notes a 38% increase in people seeking mental health care today than before the onset of the pandemic, a staggering leap.

“If you turn on the news today, you could point to numerous reasons Americans are stressed, inflation, war, climate crisis, the heightened political arena, and its effect on decades-old policies. There is undoubtedly a lot to be worried about, and it seems America is so divided there are days where we are at each other’s throats, but we cannot sustain this level of tensity, it will boil over and we can already see that in many aspects of society,” notes Dr. Fisher.

So, what can we do? First, it’s important to note if you are experiencing a mental health crisis to seek professional help immediately.  offers a free and confidential helpline open seven days a week.    

But it’s also important to note, that you do not have to be in a crisis to seek mental health support. Talk to your doctor or care provider to find the best resource for you.

Sometimes something as simple as utilizing self-care tips can be effective, make sure you are getting the right amount of sleep, exercise, choose healthy food and drinks, and stay away from alcohol, drugs, and tobacco products.

Another heightened source of stress and anxiety today, particularly prevalent in the adolescent community is social media. Increasing evidence over the last decade has identified the negative effects of social media on pre-teens and teenagers. 

“It’s important parents and guardians are aware of the potential harm it can cause and note that many experts agree that limits should be placed on children’s use of social media. Still, just as each child is different, parents and guardians should take heed and use the same guidelines when it comes to granting access to social media, just because you feel one child is ready at a certain age, does not mean the same for another child,” adds Dr. Fisher.

Dr. Fisher is an internationally recognized research and clinical expert at Northwestern University whose expertise is on mental health, behavioral health, and psychology as it relates to medical health, world events, and cultural topics.

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The National Underground Railroad Freedom Center is hosting  to reflect on a trailblazing life in conversation with UC medical student Abraham Araya, punctuated with live jazz music. The event coincides with the release of Dr. Crawford’s memoir The Bone Doctor’s Concerto: Music, Surgery and the Pieces in Between and will include live music from UC’s College Conservatory of Music jazz quartet.

Dr. Crawford is one of Cincinnati’s most influential leaders in medicine and his story is one of resilience and ambition. Growing up in the segregated South, he overcame systemic and very personal incidents of racism. He spent years playing in jazz bands throughout the Jim Crow South, making a music degree as appealing as a medical degree. He became the University of Tennessee College of Medicine’s first African American student in 1960 and then traveled the world as a surgeon for the U.S. Navy before settling in Cincinnati, where he established the Comprehensive Pediatric Orthopedic Clinic at Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, the first in the region.

The program begins at 6 p.m., followed by a reception with the UC College Conservatory of Music jazz quartet and book signing with Dr. Crawford at 7 p.m. Tickets are $5 for Freedom Center Members and $10 for general public. Tickets are available at .

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As a caregiver the responsibility of placing a loved one into a facility is a major decision not to be taken lightly. The decision to place a loved one into care has an emotional and economic impact. What the caregiver has to determine is your parent struggling to live alone in their home? The family or agencies that support your loved one may notice significant memory challenges, or their inability to manage the day-to-day creating a concern about their safety and care living at home. Now the emotion and family conversation occur about what and how do we support mom, dad, and/or spouse? The moment the need for additional care becomes the moment a series of questions need to be addressed by family while getting outside support to manage the best decision possible.

The questions are finding a long-term care home for your loved one. Where do you begin? The questions are complicated especially for Black and Hispanic families who do not typically place their family in care. “Health care utilization and, in particular, nursing home use varies by race and ethnicity. Blacks and Hispanics are less likely than Whites to use nursing home care despite having a greater need. Therefore, Blacks’ and Hispanics’ lower use is likely due to factors above and beyond need,” reports the Claude Pepper Center in 2021. Yet, as Black families are now 15% and Hispanics are 6% to those of Whites that are 75% in care. The fact is people of color placing their family members in care is on the rise yet still small enough to encounter inequities in healthcare. So, what are your options?

The next step is to contact an agency that can address some of the questions a family may have to make the best decision for their loved one and all concerned.

Locally serving the Cincinnati area your local long-term care ombudsman can help. Located within the nonprofit organization Pro Seniors, the ombudsman office can provide advice for the five-county area in Southwest Ohio—Butler, Clermont, Clinton, Hamilton, and Warren counties. Visit our website (Home Options – How to Select) or call 513-458-5518 to set an appointment to speak with an ombudsman specialist at Pro Seniors.

When you speak to the ombudsman, they will help educate you on available online search tools to narrow your options, key questions about quality of care and quality of life, understanding levels of care, and how to pay for long-term care. As part of a nonprofit and part of the state and federal Long-Term Care Ombudsman program, we do not charge for our services, and they do not receive commissions or other payments from long-term care providers for our advice.

Dementia and the African American community

African Americans are often at higher risk for Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia, which can result in someone entering assisted living or nursing home care. Among Black Americans age 70+, 21.3% are living with Alzheimer’s high blood pressure is thought to be a contributing factor. “While older Black Americans are twice as likely as older Whites to have Alzheimer’s or another dementia, research hasn’t yet identified the cause. Higher cardiovascular (heart and blood vessels) disease rates may play a role. Some studies indicate that after correcting for overall health and socioeconomic status, these differences disappear.” (source: )

Blacks and Hispanics are less likely to place their family members into care. As a caregiver, I elected not to place my mom into care unless for a short time such as respite or recovery when needed. In my experience the family member has to weigh what they can manage emotionally and financially when making these care decisions. It is important to note that all facilities are not equal, and many considerations need to be considered such as staff-to-patient ratios and the quality of time given to each patient. No matter if you place a loved one into a facility it is still necessary to manage their care strategically and daily.

One of the first decisions in choosing care is understanding the level of care needed. Memory care services can be offered in an assisted living setting or a nursing home level of care. Is help needed with showering, toileting, eating, dressing, walking, transferring to or from the bed, wheelchair, toilet, or taking medications? These are known as Activities for Daily Living (ADL). With one or two ADLs assisted living might be an appropriate level of care, but with three or more ADLs it’s likely a nursing home level of care is needed.

Next, your ombudsman can point you to public information about the past performance of a provider and show you how to compare based on your loved one’s needs. Those providers that hold themselves out as specifically providing “memory care” must meet certain state requirements as a certified memory care provider. In assisted living, for example, these include:

• Single-occupancy resident unit.

• At least three therapeutic, social, or recreational activities a day for individuals designed to meet individuals’ needs and preferences.

• Ensuring safe access to outdoor space for individuals.

• A sufficient number (20% greater than standard assisted living) of registered nurses (RN), or licensed practical nurses under the direction of an RN, on call or on site at all times for individuals receiving memory care.

A nursing or assisted living home visit is an essential next step. The ombudsman will arm you with key questions to ask. Visit in the evenings or weekends, when staffing is sometimes lighter. Observe how the staff treat the residents. Are the floors clean? Any unpleasant smells? Is there a calendar posted with resident activities for every day of the week? Visit during mealtime. How does the food look and smell? How responsive is the staff to call bells and requests for help? Don’t be afraid to approach residents in a common area and ask them about their living experience at this home. Remember, there is still bias in healthcare. National Institutes of Health (NIH) conducted research and “uncovered racial disparities in nursing home care, possibly due to unconscious bias, systemic issues, and other circumstances. These inequalities present a serious public health problem that deserves attention.

“The consensus from the existing literature is that minority [residents] do not receive nursing home care of comparable quality to white [residents].”— National Institutes of Health (NIH)

The actions of the family and caregiver are profound when making healthcare decisions. Here are some helpful tips when considering transitioning anyone into a facility:

1. How many aides to patient ratio. How many aides are on staff for every patient for all three shifts to accommodate patient care.

2. How often are patients bathed, cleaned, or assisted in hygiene functions.

3. What is the racial makeup of the facility, patients, and workers.

4.How many full-time aides to temporary aides, nursing staff are within the facility.

5. Have there been incidents of unsafe actions that led to harm to patients or a lack of safety in their environment?

6. What are the facilities safety and maintenance protocols. Unclean rooms and areas can lead to health problems.

7. How often does the doctor visit the facility? What is the turnaround time on labs, medicines, and return phone calls to families?

8. If a family has its own services, how can the family opt out of certain services that may have a price tag attached?

9. Review the payment structure and who is responsible for what bills such as private pay versus Medicare/Medicare or insurance.

10. Before you choose a facility, assess the asset transfer. Review the 5-year Medicaid asset transfer and the exceptions to the Look-Back period.

When placing someone into a facility do your due diligence. Pro Seniors is one step to answering some of the important questions all families need. For more information on how to select long-term care, visit our website () or call 513-458-5518 to set an appointment with an ombudsman.

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May is a month of renewal, growth, and connection. As the days lengthen and flowers bloom, let’s explore the intertwined themes of mental health, motherhood, and gardening.

1. The Essential Role of Mothers

Mothers are the architects of love, resilience, and memories. Whether we remember our own mothers or embrace the role ourselves, we recognize their unique impact. As a daughter, I cherish the moments spent with my mother—the laughter, the lessons, and the shared adventures. Now, as a mother and aunt, I understand the weight of this assignment: to provide love, support, and structure while continually learning and evolving. Parenthood is both a gift and a journey of growth.

2. Mental Health Awareness for Moms

Being a mother involves juggling responsibilities—caring for others while safeguarding our own well-being. The mental load can be overwhelming. Recognizing signs of stress, knowing when to take a break, and seeking resources are essential. Consider the seven areas of rest: physical, emotional, social, mental, sensory, creative, and spiritual. Explore how each contributes to your overall well-being. (For more insights, read “Embracing the 7 Types of Rest: Why Moms Are Exhausted and What Actually Helps” on momwell.com.)

3. Cultivating Your Inner Garden

Just as May brings flowers, it’s time to tend to our personal gardens. Gardening teaches us patience, nurturing, and resilience. Here’s how to flourish:

• Planting Season: Like flowers, we thrive when planted in the right season. Assess your environment—physical, emotional, and social. Are you rooted in fertile soil? Adjust as needed.
• Watering and Feeding: Regular self-care is like watering your garden. Hydrate your mind, body, and soul. Feed your passions and interests. Seek sunlight—the positive energy that fuels growth.
• Weeding: Remove negativity and self-doubt. Weed out distractions that hinder your progress. Cultivate a mindset that allows you to blossom.

In Conclusion: You Are the Garden

Reflect on these interconnected themes. Just as a garden needs care, so do you. Nourish yourself, tend to your well-being, and watch yourself bloom. May you bear abundant fruit in this season of growth.

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By Dawn P. Coe, University of Tennessee and Elizabeth (Kip) Webster, University of Tennessee

is a series for children of all ages. If you have a question you’d like an expert to answer, send it to curiouskidsus@theconversation.com.

Why are some people faster than others? – Jon, age 14, Macon, Georgia

Usain Bolt, , ran a 100-meter sprint at a speed of 23.35 miles per hour (37.57 kilometers per hour).

That’s mind-blowingly fast for a human. It’s about the same speed as cruising in a car through your neighborhood or in a school zone. It might not seem that fast when you’re in the car, but for a person? in the world can even come close.

There are several reasons why some people can run very fast while others tend to run more slowly. Genetics – the traits you inherit from your parents – , but so do your choices and experiences.

As pediatric , we create and evaluate programs that help children be healthy. The exciting news is that while you have no control over your genetics, you can train to improve your speed.

Fast twitch, slow twitch

One major factor that influences your ability to run fast is the structure of your body, including how your muscles work.

The human body has that work together, allowing you to move in different directions and at various speeds. These muscles are made up of groups of fibers. There are : fast twitch and slow twitch.

Muscles have different mixes of these fiber types. For example, two muscles make up the calf: One is predominantly fast twitch – that’s the gastrocnemius, used for sprinting and jumping. The other is mostly slow twitch – that’s the soleus, used for walking and jogging.

Fast-twitch muscle fibers are larger and help your body move quickly and generate significant force. Sprinters tend to have an abundance of . However, this muscle fiber type also tires quickly, which limits how long you can run at top speed to relatively short distances.

are smaller and help you run at slower speeds, but with greater endurance. Long-distance runners and competitive cyclists tend to have a lot of these muscles.

How much you have of each type of muscle fiber – fast twitch and slow twitch – is , so you’ll have to work with what you’re born with when it comes to muscle types. But .

Your brain plays a big role

Physical ability isn’t just about muscle. Your brain plays an important role, too.

Your skeletal muscles are – you think about your actions and then execute the movements. For example, you how long your stride is, , how your feet hit the ground and .

You can teach your body to use the best running techniques. That includes , so your body is standing tall, and , so your feet land below you rather than too far out in front, where they can slow you down.

You can also improve your running form by using your whole body, with your arms pumping in opposition to the legs, running on your toes and maximizing the time spent in flight phase with both feet off the ground. Using proper running techniques helps the muscles create more force and work together, which helps you run faster.

The more you practice an activity, the better you will get. As your ability to run fast increases, challenge yourself to run even faster.

How to train to run faster – myth-busting!

You may have heard your friends chatting about ways to boost your speed or searched the internet for tips on getting faster. Time to bust some of those myths.

Myth 1: You have to run as fast as you can to train to be faster. That’s false!

You don’t have to run as fast as you can to get faster, and it actually helps to take short breaks to recover in between activities where you are sprinting.

Myth 2: You need to lift heavy weights to get faster. False!

involves performing exercises that help you get better at specific movements. They involve using either medium weights or just the resistance of your own body weight. , , or are great examples. These activities focus on the muscles that are instrumental during running.

Myth 3: You need to specialize in running early in life to become a fast runner. False!

Picking one activity to focus on early in life may actually limit your ability to develop into a fast runner. Doing a variety of physical activities can help you . For example, the movements and endurance used in soccer may translate into the ability to run faster.

Myth 4: Training isn’t fun. False!

Training programs can take many shapes and forms. You can play running games with your friends, work on fast footwork using an agility ladder or create obstacle courses. There’s nothing like a little healthy competition to motivate your training.

What’s important is having fun while training and participating in
activities that promote running speed on a regular basis.

So, whether you want to be the next Usain Bolt or you just want to win a race against your friend, remember that with a little bit of genetic luck and hard work, it may just be possible.

This article is republished from , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: , and ,

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The authors do not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and have disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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By Nathaniel Johnson, University of North Dakota; Hasan Khatib, University of Wisconsin-Madison, and Thomas D. Crenshaw, University of Wisconsin-Madison

Within the last century, researchers’ understanding of genetics has undergone a profound transformation.

Genes, regions of DNA that are largely responsible for our physical characteristics, were considered unchanging under the pioneered by biologist Gregor Mendel in 1865. That is, genes were thought to be largely unaffected by a person’s environment.

The emergence of the field of epigenetics in 1942 .

Epigenetics refers to shifts in gene expression that occur without changes to the DNA sequence. Some epigenetic changes are an aspect of cell function, such as .

However, environmental factors also affect the functions of genes, meaning people’s behaviors affect their genetics. For instance, identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg, and as a result, they share the same genetic makeup. However, as the twins age, their appearances may differ due to distinct environmental exposures. One twin may eat a healthy balanced diet, whereas the other may eat an unhealthy diet, resulting in differences in the expression of their genes that play a role in obesity, helping the former twin have lower body fat percentage.

People don’t have much control over some of these factors, . Other factors, though, are more in a person’s control: , , and , such as that coming from plastics, pesticides and burning fossil fuels, including car exhaust.

Another factor is nutrition, which has given rise to the . This discipline is concerned with the notions that “you are what you eat” – and “you are what your grandmother ate.” In short, nutritional epigenetics is the study of how your diet, and the diet of your parents and grandparents, . As the dietary choices a person makes today affects the genetics of their future children, epigenetics may provide motivation for making better dietary choices.

work . The other studies how diet and lifestyle choices . Our research team is comprised of fathers, so our work in this field only enhances our already intimate familiarity with the transformative power of parenthood.

A story of famine

The roots of nutritional epigenetics research can be traced back to a poignant chapter in history – in the final stages of World War II.

During the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands, the population was forced to live on rations of 400 to 800 kilocalories per day, a far cry from the typical 2,000-kilocalorie diet used as a . As a result, and 4.5 million were malnourished.

Studies found that the famine caused epigentic changes to a gene called IGF2 that is related to growth and development. Those changes suppressed muscle growth in both the who endured the famine. For these subsequent generations, that suppression of .

These findings marked a pivotal moment in epigenetics research – and clearly demonstrated that environmental factors, such as famine, can lead to epigenetic changes in offspring that may have serious implications for their health.

The role of the mother’s diet

Until this groundbreaking work, most researchers believed epigenetic changes couldn’t be passed down from one generation to the next. Rather, researchers thought epigenetic changes could occur with early-life exposures, such as during gestation – a highly vulnerable period of development. So initial nutritional epigenetic research focused on dietary intake during pregnancy.

The were later supported by animal studies, which allow researchers to control how animals are bred, which can help control for background variables. Another advantage for researchers is that and reproduce more quickly than people, allowing for faster results. In addition, researchers can fully control animals’ diets throughout their entire lifespan, allowing for specific aspects of diet to be manipulated and examined. Together, these factors allow researchers to better investigate epigenetic changes in animals than in people.

In one study, researchers exposed pregnant female rats to a commonly used fungicide called vinclozolin. In response to this exposure, the first generation born showed decreased ability to produce sperm, . Critically, these effects, like those of the famine, were passed to subsequent generations.

As monumental as these works are for shaping nutritional epigenetics, they neglected other periods of development and completely ignored the role of fathers in the epigenetic legacy of their offspring. However, a more recent study in sheep showed that a paternal diet supplemented with the amino acid methionine given from birth to weaning of the next three generations. Methionine is an essential amino acid involved in , an example of an epigenetic change.

Healthy choices for generations to come

These studies underscore the enduring impact parents’ diets have on their children and grandchildren. They also serve as a powerful motivator for would-be parents and current parents to , as the dietary choices parents make .

Meeting with a nutrition professional, such as a registered dietitian, can provide evidence-based recommendations for making .

There are still many unknowns about how diet affects and influences our genes. What research is starting to show about nutritional epigenetics is a powerful and compelling reason to consider making lifestyle changes.

There are many things researchers already know about the . A Western Diet is high in saturated fats, sodium and added sugar, but ; not surprisingly, Western diets are associated with negative health outcomes, such as .

A good place to start is to eat more whole, unprocessed foods, particularly fruits, vegetables and whole grains, and – that includes fast food, chips, cookies and candy, ready-to-cook meals, frozen pizzas, canned soups and sweetened beverages.

These dietary changes are well known for their health benefits and are described in the and by .

Many people find it , particularly when it involves food. Motivation is a . Luckily, this is where family and friends can help – they exert a .

However, on a broader, societal level, food security – meaning people’s ability to access and afford healthy food – should be a critical priority for governments, food producers and distributors, and nonprofit groups. Lack of food security is associated with epigenetic changes that have been linked to negative health outcomes such as , and .

Through relatively , people can significantly and measurably influence the genes of their children and grandchildren. So when you pass up a bag a chips – and choose fruit or a veggie instead – keep in mind: It’s not just for you, but for the generations to come.

This article is republished from , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: , ; , , and ,

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Nathaniel Johnson receives funding from the United States Department of Agriculture and the National Institutes of Health. He has previously received funding through the National Science Foundation, the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association, and the North Dakota Beef Checkoff.

Hasan Khatib receives funding no. 2023-67015-39527 from the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture

Thomas D Crenshaw receives funding from Hatch Multi-State Research Formula Funds; USDA/Natl. Institute of Food and Agriculture; DHHS, PHS, National Institutes of Health.

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By Nao Hagiwara, University of Virginia and Tiffany Green, University of Wisconsin-Madison

There is that implicit bias – non-conscious attitudes toward specific groups – is a source of racial inequities in certain aspects of health care, and lawmakers are taking note.

Since the , wherein a Black man was killed by police, several U.S. federal and state legislators have introduced proposals declaring racism as a public health crisis. In March 2024, four U.S. senators calling out the “implicit racial and ethnic biases within the health care system, which have an explicit impact on the quality of care experienced by members of racial and ethnic minority groups.”

Following this reasoning, states like have enacted legislation mandating implicit bias training for health care providers. Health institutions have also focused on addressing implicit bias among the next generation of providers. For example, the to address systemic racism in medicine includes requiring training that covers various forms of racial bias.

But is implicit bias training improving care quality for Black patients? We are a and a who are investigating the role that provider implicit bias plays in racial health care disparities. Our suggests the answer is: not yet.

What is implicit bias?

The first thing to understand is that isn’t just one thing. It involves multiple interconnected components that govern how someone interacts with specific groups or its members: affect, behavior and cognition.

Psychologists sometimes refer to those components as the ABCs.

The affective component of bias, also known as prejudice, is defined as having negative feelings towards a group or its members. The behavioral component of bias, or discrimination, involves negative or harmful actions towards a group or its members. Lastly, the cognitive component of bias, also known as stereotyping, refers to expectations and beliefs about a group.

One is that implicit bias is inherently unconscious and people are unaware of their own negative feelings, beliefs and behaviors. In fact, research suggests that people are in perceiving their own levels of implicit bias.

Each component of bias can operate at implicit and explicit levels. At the implicit level, the ABCs arise spontaneously and effortlessly, while ABCs operating at the explicit level are intentional and effortful. For example, the unease someone may feel when encountering a large Black man at night is an emotion triggered at the implicit level. Actively making an effort to replace those feelings of unease with neutral or positive feelings are emotions activated at the explicit level.

Why does implicit bias matter in health care?

Black and white people in treatment during medical interactions. A December 2023 survey from the Kaiser Family Foundation found that nearly 1 in 5 Black people reported experiencing unfair or disrespectful treatment from their health care providers in the past three years because of their race. Only 3% of white respondents reported similar treatment. Researchers have seen similar health .

Extensive research over the past two decades indicates racial inequities in patient-provider communication stem largely from . This implicit prejudice manifests during medical interactions with Black patients through a wide range of . These include nonverbal behaviors, or how people move their bodies – such as eye contact and hand movements – and paraverbal behaviors, or how people deliver speech – such as their tone and volume. Both of these behaviors typically occur spontaneously.

For example, providers with higher levels of implicit prejudice and evaluating Black patients. They also display and more frequently use like “worry,” “afraid” and “nervous.”

Importantly, Black patients are these subtle negative communication behaviors. “It’s petty, little things,” a Black patient told the Kaiser Family Foundation. “When they call the nurse, they rush to come see the white people. They don’t rush to see the Black people. I think it’s racist.” Consequently, Black patients report after interacting with providers with higher levels of implicit prejudice.

A common misconception is that implicit prejudice is a key driver of racial disparities in medical treatment. However, current research does not support the idea that providers with higher levels of implicit prejudice treat Black patients worse than white patients. Additionally, more research is needed to determine whether from providers – such as automatically associating the idea of being “medically uncooperative” with Black people – would also lead to negative communication behaviors or sub-optimal treatment decisions for Black patients.

What’s wrong with implicit bias training?

see implicit bias training as an essential component of medical education. However, current programs have shortcomings that undermine their effectiveness.

To understand what typical implicit bias training is like, our looks at 77 studies on implicit bias training programs in U.S. health care institutions. Although the majority of the programs were designed to address implicit racial bias, a significant number also addressed other forms of bias including gender identity, sexual orientation and socioeconomic status. Most programs aim to educate health care workers and trainees on implicit bias and how it may affect their patient care, as well as increase awareness about their own biases. Most are single sessions that last about 5.5 hours on average.

However, the design of these training programs does not align with current scientific knowledge about implicit bias.

First, while awareness of one’s biases is a necessary first step to mitigating implicit bias, . Providers must also be personally invested in and have the mental capacity to address their biases.

Second, mitigating implicit bias requires . Implicit bias is like a habit: it is deeply ingrained and operates without intentional control, making it challenging to recognize and change.

Third, training effectiveness is more accurately assessed through patient outcomes, such as care satisfaction, rather than self-reflection or implicit bias scores. Because providers may be concerned about , they may not provide honest feedback. Furthermore, changes in implicit bias scores in decreased discriminatory behaviors, making it unclear how these programs can change the quality of care that Black patients experience.

How can health care systems better address implicit bias?

Developing and implementing effective implicit bias training in health care is a scientific endeavor that requires a strong supporting structure.

For example, the , originally designed to help translate discoveries in the lab into treatments in the clinic, could also be applied to implicit bias training. This framework guides scientific progress across incremental stages, starting from confirming the mechanism behind an illness to developing and testing a new treatment for use in the broader community.

This framework is particularly relevant to the development and implementation of evidence-based implicit bias training. Researchers first focus on confirming the mechanisms that underlie implicit bias. Then, after developing and testing implicit bias training programs, they examine its effectiveness across institutions and among diverse health care professionals.

Applying a rigorous scientific process to the development of implicit bias training requires an institution’s long-term commitment, robust support and substantial resources. We believe this investment is a small price to pay for the invaluable progress it promises in reshaping health care for the better for everyone.

This article is republished from , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: , and ,

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Nao Hagiwara receives funding from National Institute of Health.

Tiffany Green does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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By Andrew Herbert, Rochester Institute of Technology

Myopia, or the need for corrected vision to focus or see objects at a distance, has become a lot more common in recent decades. , also known as nearsightedness, an epidemic.

Optometry researchers estimate that will need corrective lenses to offset myopia by 2050 if current rates continue – up from 23% in 2000 and .

The associated health care costs are huge. In the United States alone, spending on corrective lenses, eye tests and related expenses .

What explains the rapid growth in myopia?

who has studied visual perception and perceptual defects. To answer that question, first let’s examine what causes myopia – and what reduces it.

How myopia develops

While having two myopic parents does mean you’re more likely to be nearsighted, . That means the causes of myopia are more behavioral than genetic.

Optometrists have learned a great deal about the progression of myopia by . They do so by putting little helmets on baby chickens. Lenses on the face of the helmet cover the chicks’ eyes and are adjusted to affect how much they see.

Just like in humans, if visual input is distorted, a chick’s eyes grow too large, . And it’s progressive. Blur leads to eye growth, which causes more blur, which makes the eye grow even larger, and so on.

Two recent studies featuring extensive surveys of children and their parents provide strong support for the idea that an in myopia is that focusing on objects immediately in front of our eyes, whether a screen, a book or a drawing pad. The more time we spend focusing on something within arm’s length of our faces, dubbed “near work,” the greater the odds of having myopia.

So as much as and too much “screen time” for hurting our eyes, the truth is even activities as valuable as reading a good book can affect your eyesight.

Outside light keeps myopia at bay

Other research has shown that this unnatural eye growth can be interrupted by sunlight.

A 2022 study, for example, found that myopia rates for children who didn’t spend much time outdoors – say, once or twice a week – compared with those who were outside daily. At the same time, kids who spent more than three hours a day while not at school reading or looking at a screen close-up were four times more likely to have myopia than those who spent an hour or less doing so.

In another paper, from 2012, researchers that compared duration of time spent outdoors with myopia incidence. They also found that more time spent outdoors was associated with lower myopia incidence and progression. The odds of developing myopia dropped by 2% for each hour spent outside per week.

Other researchers have reported similar effects and argued for and changes in early-age schooling to reduce myopia prevalence.

What’s driving the epidemic

That still doesn’t explain why it’s on the rise so rapidly.

Globally, a and industrialization of countries in East Asia over the last 50 years. Around that time, young people began spending more time in classrooms reading and focusing on other objects very close to their eyes and less time outdoors.

This is also what researchers after World War II, when schooling was mandated for Indigenous people. Myopia rates for Inuit went from the single digits before the 1950s to upwards of 70% by the 1970s as all children began attending schools for the first time.

Countries in Western Europe, and Australia have shown in recent years but nothing approaching what has been observed recently in . The two main factors identified as leading to increased myopia are and other activities that require focusing on an object close to one’s eyes and a .

The surge in myopia cases will likely have its worst effects 40 or 50 years from now because for the young people being diagnosed with nearsightedness now to experience the most severe vision problems.

Treating myopia

Fortunately, just a few minutes a day with glasses or contact lenses that correct for blur , which is why early vision testing and vision correction are important to limit the development of myopia. Eye checks for children are mandatory in some countries, and , as well as .

People with with high myopia, however, have , such as retinal detachment, in which the retina pulls away from the the back of the eye. The chances of myopia-related increase by . A diopter is a unit of measurement used in eye prescriptions.

But there appear to be two sure-fire ways to offset or delay these effects: Spend less time focusing on objects close to your face, like books and smartphones, and spend more time outside in the bright, natural light. Given the first one is difficult advice to take in our modern age, the next best thing is taking frequent breaks – or perhaps spend more time reading and scrolling outside in the sun.

This article is republished from , a nonprofit, independent news organization bringing you facts and trustworthy analysis to help you make sense of our complex world. It was written by: ,

Read more:

Andrew Herbert receives funding from NSF.

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